330 Ultimate Tule

The explorer Pytheas wrote a travel journal that by now is long lost but which has been quoted from in several subsequent works. Among other things, he wrote of an island that he called Thule or Ultima Thule. This island is thought to have been Iceland.

330 BC An explorer named Pytheas sailed north from Marseilles (France) to discover how far the world would reach in that direction. He navigated the British Isles and the northern seas and upon returning home wrote about an island that he called Thule or Ultima Thule, which either he had learned about from others or discovered himself. This island was six days north of Britain and one day removed from "the end of the world". The island he found is thought to have been Iceland.

874-930 The Settlement Of Iceland

Iceland was settled mainly by Norwegians, who brought with them a number of Celts. The first geographical document describing the northern seas was written by an Irish monk named Dicuil, early in the 9th century. The book was called "De mensura orbis terrae" and in it he related his interviews with Irish priests, the papas, who claimed they had sailed north to Thule and lived there from February to August.

The papas confirmed Pytheas' story that after a day's journey north of the island they had come upon "frozen sea". Dicuil was the first man to locate Thule as the isolated island that had already been known in Ireland in the latter part of the 8th century. That island later became known as Iceland.

The Irish monks are believed to have left Iceland soon after the Vikings themselves settled there around the year 900. It is possible, however, that they did remain in Iceland, in which case they would have been completely without influence. The Viking settlement of Iceland was precipitated largely by internal struggles in Norway, between the barbarian king Harald the Fairhaired and the former rulers. Harald won a major victory late in the 8th century, after which he drove his enemies all the way to the Scottish Isles, which he then conquered. Many fled to Iceland - which was then already known among Vikings - either directly from Norway or from Britain, thus evading Harald's reign of power.

The main source of information about the settlement of Iceland is the Landnámabók (Book of Settlements), written in the 12th century, which gives a detailed account of the first settlers. According to this book, Ingólfur Arnarson was the first settler. He was a chieftain from Norway, who arrived in Iceland with his family and dependants in 874. He raised his farm in Reykjavik, which today is the country's capital. Over the subsequent 60 years or so Viking settlers, bringing a number of Celts with them, arrived from Scandinavia and raised homesteads throughout the inhabitable areas.

In the year 930, at the end of the Settlement period, a constitutional law code was accepted and the Althingi established. The judicial power of the Althingi was distributed between 4 local courts and a Supreme Court of sorts was conducted annually at the national assembly at Thingvellir.

In the year 1000 Christianity was peacefully adopted by the Icelanders at the Althingi, which met for two weeks every summer, attracting a large proportion of the population. The first bishopric was established at Skalholt in South Iceland in 1056, and a second at Holar in the north in 1106. Both became the country's main centers of learning.

In the late tenth century Greenland was discovered and colonized by the Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red, and around the year 1000 the Icelanders were the first Europeans to set foot on the American continent, 500 years before Columbus, although their attempts to settle in the New World failed.

In 1262-1264 internal feuds, amounting to a civil war, led to submission to the king of Norway and a new monarchical code in 1271. When Norway and Denmark formed the Kalmar Union in 1397, Iceland fell under the sovereignty of the King of Denmark.

After the "Golden Age" of independent Iceland ended, things went from bad to worse. The Danish kings brought about the Reformation of the Church in 1551, which resulted in Danish control over the Church, and confiscation of its great wealth. They replaced the Hansa and English trade with an oppressive Danish trade monopoly, and established absolute monarchy in 1662, thus transferring all governing power to Copenhagen. While this arrangement was very profitable for the Danish Crown, these changes were disastrous for the Icelandic economy. Further problems arose in the food supply due to cooling of the climate during the 16th and 17th centuries.

The eighteenth century marked the most tragic age in Iceland's history. In 1703, when the first complete census was taken, the population was approximately 50,000, of whom about 20% were beggars and dependents. From 1707 to 1709 the population sank to about 35,000 because of a devastating smallpox epidemic. Twice again the population declined below 40,000, both during the years 1752-57 and 1783-85, owing to a series of famines and natural disasters.

At the end of the 18th century the Althingi had dissolved and the old diocese replaced by one bishop residing in Reykjavik. As a consequence of the plight of the populace the trade monopoly was modified in 1783 and all subjects of the Danish king were given the right to trade in Iceland. In 1843 the Althingi was reestablished as a consultative assembly. In 1854 foreign trade was given entirely free. In 1874, when Iceland celebrated the millennium of the first settlement, it received a constitution from the Danish king and control of its own finances.

In 1904 Iceland got home rule and finally in 1918 independence. Finally, on June 17 1944, the Republic of Iceland was formally proclaimed at Thingvellir.

Government

Iceland has a written constitution and a parliamentary form of government. A president is elected by direct popular vote for a term of four years, with no term limit. Most executive power however rests with the Government, which is elected separately from the presidential elections every four years.

The Althingi is a legislative body of 63 members elected for a term of four years by a popular vote. Anyone who is eligible to vote can run for a Parliamentary seat, with the exception of the President and the judges of the Supreme Court. After every election, the President gives one of the parliamentary leaders of the political parties the authority to form a cabinet, usually of the largest party first. If he is not successful, the President will ask another political party leader to form a Government.

A cabinet of ministers stay in power until the next general election or a new government is formed. The ministers sit in the Althingi, but if they have not been elected, they do not have the right to vote in parliament.

Population

Iceland was settled by Norsemen from Scandinavia and Celts from the British Isles. Both the language and culture of Iceland were purely Scandinavian from the outset, but there are traces of Celtic influence in some of the Eddaic poems, in personal and place names and in the appearance of present-day Icelanders who have a higher percentage of the dark and red hair than the other Nordic nations.

The early blending of Nordic and Celtic blood may partly account for the fact that the Icelanders, alone of all the Nordic people, produced great literature in the Middle Ages. Immigration has been minimal since the first settlement, and there are no Inuit (Eskimos) in Iceland.

Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe with an average of about seven inhabitants per square mile. Almost four-fifths of the country is uninhabited, the population being limited to a narrow coastal belt, valleys and the lowland plains in the south and southwest.

Around the year 1100 the population, then entirely rural, is estimated to have been about 70 - 80,000. Three times in the eighteenth century it sank below 40,000, as stated earlier, but by the year 1900 it had reached 78,000. In 1925 it had passed the 100,000 mark, in 1967 it reached 200,000 and is now over 280,000. The average life expectancy for men is 74 years and for women 80 years - one of the world's highest averages.

In 1880 there were only three towns in Iceland, where 5% of the population lived. By 1920 about 43% of the population lived in towns and villages with more than 200 inhabitants. By 1984 there were 23 towns and 42 villages where 89.2% of the population lived, while only 10,8% lived in rural districts.

Language

Icelandic is the national language and it has changed very little from the original tongue spoken by the Norse settlers. English and Danish are widely spoken and understood. Icelandic has two letters of its own, Þ/þ and Ð/ð, which were used in old English. "Þ" is pronounced "th" as in "thing" and "Ð" is pronounced "th" as in "them".

By law, Icelanders must follow the ancient tradition of deriving their last name from the first name of their father (patronymic system). For example, if a man named Erik names his son Leif, his last name will be Eriksson (the son of Erik). His daughter Thordis would be named Thordis Eriksdaughter (actually Eiríksdóttir, the daughter of Erik). She would keep her own name even if she marries. For this reason, Icelanders always have to be referred to by their first names. Last names are never used alone. Icelanders say, for example, "the President of Iceland, Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson," or even "President Ólafur," but never "President Grímsson". There is a limited number of Icelanders who do have family names.

Religion

The established church in Iceland is the Evangelical Lutheran Church. There are many Lutheran churches in Iceland. There is also a Catholic church in Reykjavik, and a number of churches for other groups. The breakdown is as follows - Church of Iceland: 92,2%; Other Lutherans: 3,1%; Roman Catholics: 0,9%; Others: 3,8%.

Education

Literacy has been universal in Iceland since the end of the eighteenth century. In 1907 school attendance was made obligatory for all children aged 10-14. Before the age of ten they were generally taught at home. In 1946 compulsory school attendance was extended, and at present it covers the ages between seven and 16. Those who wish to continue their education either go to various specialized schools or to secondary schools.

Academic education in the full sense did not begin in Iceland until 1847 with the formation of a Theological Seminary. It was followed in 1876 by a Medical School and in 1908 by a School of Law. These three institutions were merged into one in 1911 when the University of Iceland was established. Later, a fourth Faculty of Philosophy was added, primarily dealing with Icelandic philology, history and literature. The university’s main building was opened in 1940.

Social Affairs

Since World War II Iceland has enjoyed a high standard of living, comparable to that of the other Nordic countries. From 1901 to 1960 real national income rose ten-fold with an annual average rate of growth just over 4 percent. During this period the national economy underwent dramatic changes, transforming from a subsistence economy into an exchange economy through rapid urbanization and other features of industrialization. Today, the living standard is among the best in the world and per capita income is comparable to that of the United States.

The quality of housing in Iceland is very high, while the road system in the countryside is comparatively poorer than in neighboring countries. This is mainly due to the large size of the country and the small population.

Fisheries

Fish and fish products constitute more than 70% of Iceland’s exports in goods and it is the most important industry. The continental shelf around Iceland, where the warm Gulf Stream and the cold currents from the Arctic meet, offers very favorable conditions for various kinds of marine life, and are extremely rich fishing grounds. The fishing grounds, which are Iceland’s main natural resource, require strict conservation, and fish catches are tightly controlled. The main species of fish are cod, haddock, saithe, redfish, herring and capelin.

Agriculture

Agricultural land in Iceland is mostly used for growing grass for the making of hay and silage as fodder for livestock. Sheep and dairy cattle make up the main livestock in Icelandic farming.

Industries

It is estimated that the potential total exploitable hydro-electric power in Iceland amounts to 64,000 Gwh p.a., of which 45,000 Gwh p.a. are considered to be economical. However, only 4200 Gwh p.a. were being utilized in 1990.

No one knows exactly how much geothermal power is available in Iceland but it is without much doubt tremendous. In 1990 the exploited capacity had reached about 5000 Gwh p.a., bringing 81% of the population geothermal heating for their houses. Power is therefore among the most important resources in Iceland. Presently aluminum accounts for about 11% of the country’s exports, while other manufacturing products account for about 12%, including ferro-silicon.

Icelandic Coat Of Arms

The Icelandic Coat of Arms (pictured top right this page) is a silvery cross in a sky-blue field with a fiery red cross in the silvery one. The shield-bearers are the four guardian spirits of the land: A bull to the right of the shield, a giant to the left, a vulture to the right above the bull, and a dragon to the left above the giant. The shield rests on a slab of basalt.

The Icelandic Flag

The Icelandic National Flag (pictured top left this page) is sky-blue (Color: SCOTDIC No. 693009) with a snow-white (Color: SCOTDIC No. 95) cross and fiery red (Color: SCOTDIC Iceland Flag Red) cross in the white cross. The arms of the crosses extend entirely to the edges of the flag, and their width is 2/9th, but the red cross is 1/9th of the width of the flag. The blue field is thus divided into rectangular squares: Those nearest to the flag-pole are equilateral and the outer squares are equally wide, but twice as long. The proportional figures for the width and length of the flag are 18:25.

Geothermal Heat

Iceland is richer in hot springs and high-temperature activity than any other country in the world. High-temperature activity is limited to certain fields. They are characterized by steam vents, mud pools, and precipitation of sulfur.

The main high-temperature areas are Torfa glacier east of Hekla and Grims lakes in the Vatna glacier. Next in order of size are Hengill near Reykjavik, which is now being exploited to provide hot water for space heating in the capital, Kerlingar mountains, Náma mountain, Kverk mountains and Krisu bay. The total power output of the Torfa glacier area, which is the largest, is estimated to be equivalent to 1,500 megawatts. Some of the high-temperature areas have workable sulfur deposits.

Hot springs are found all over Iceland, but they are rare in the eastern basalt area. There are about 250 low-temperature geothermal areas with a total of about 800 hot springs. The average temperature of their water is 75° Celsius (167° F). The biggest hot spring in Iceland, Deildartunguhver, has a flow of 150 liters (40 gallons) of boiling water per second. Some of the hot springs are spouting springs or geysers, the most famous being Geysir in Haukadalur in south Iceland, from which the international word geyser is derived. It ejects a water column to a height of about 180 feet, but has had limited activity in recent years. Another renowned geyser in the same field as Geysir is Strokkur, which spouts every few minutes. Springs charged with carbon dioxide are to be found in some districts, mainly in Snaefellsnes, but have not yet been utilized. Since the last Hekla eruption, springs rising from under the new lava have also been found to be charged with carbon dioxide.

Glaciers

Among the most distinctive features of Iceland are its glaciers, which cover over 4,500 square miles (11,800 km²) or 11.5% of the total area of the country. During the past few decades, however, they have markedly thinned and retreated owing to a milder climate, and some of the smaller ones have all but vanished.

By far the largest of the glacier caps is Vatna glacier in southeast Iceland with an area of 3,240 square miles (8,400 km²), equal in size to all the glaciers on the European mainland put together. It reaches a thickness of 3,000 feet (1 km). One of its southern outlets, Breidamerkur glacier, descends to sea level.

Avalanches are common in the northwest, north and east, where the steep mountain slopes, covered with deep snow, threaten the inhabited areas. In many of those areas farms have been destroyed and people killed by avalanches. A disaster of this kind occurred in the town of Neskaupsstadur on the East coast in December 1974, when an avalanche destroyed a large fish-processing plant and some houses, killing thirteen people. On January 17, 1995 an avalanche killed 14 people in the small town of Sudavik on the West coast.